Adrian Wooldridge notes that while pre-modern governance relied on patronage and nepotism, kings often appointed "lowly-born men" of extraordinary ability, like Thomas Cromwell, to ensure stability. Napoleon emerged as a transitional figure, embodying a "

Adrian Wooldridge notes that while pre-modern governance relied on patronage and nepotism, kings often appointed "lowly-born men" of extraordinary ability, like Thomas Cromwell, to ensure stability. Napoleon emerged as a transitional figure, embodying a "career open to talent" while simultaneously reinventing monarchical personas. In the 18th century, French philosophers championed "genius" or brain power as a natural phenomenon the state should discover and utilize. This shift laid the groundwork for modern meritocratic governance, moving away from purely bloodline-based appointments toward a methodology centered on identifying and rewarding intellectual capacity. 2
1670